The Magistrates of Rome

The Roman Republic was governed by two Consuls, elected by selected parts of the population for one-year periods. There were two consuls to guard against one trying to claim absolute power or using trickery to obtain more influence. If one of the consuls was a weak character, though, it might unbalance the division of power. On selected occasions, the Senate could extend the Consul's term of office.

In times of war, Republican consuls would ride out and lead armies into battle. Having two consuls meant that two large armies could always be fielded, with relatively unified commands. The Consuls appointed someone to be their Master of Horse, a type of secondary position. This had great ceremonial importance. The man was probably be a key military advisor. Originally, it was likely associated with cavalry, which was often under a separate command due to tactical or class considerations.

The Knights probably originated in the horse-riding tradition of mounted soldiery, at a time when soldiers had to supply their own weapons and equipment. Only the rich could supply horses and enlist in the cavalry. Time diluted their original role as individuals wealthy enough to supply mounted soldiers, and the "Equestrian Order" represented nothing more than a form of minor aristocracy. They came to be a class of wealthy patrons, not actually responsible for much outside a few religious and sacrificial duties, but the titles had great honour associated with them and an ancient history. They were not "knights" in the mediaeval sense. As time went on, they lost their central importance in the Roman social order, and took on the roles of minor merchants, tax "farmers" (collectors) and contractors.

The Senators retained much of the state's power and legitimacy, especially religious authority and some economic and military rights. It was the Senate which made the central decisions affecting the Republic, and the ongoing battle with Senatorial aristocratic power was the key element in Roman history. Ultimately, both the people and the Senate lost as each side backed tyrants of their own.

The people's Tribunes had the ability to veto any legislation passed by the elites or the National Assembly, or any other act of government. They could prevent arrests and stop the conscription of armies, even in a time of crisis. This power and position was theoretically meant to protect the interests of the common Roman from the powers-that-be. But in the later Republic, the wealthy had usurped the Tribune's position through bribery and corruption, often buying off voters with gifts of money. Some Tribunes used their powers to serve themselves or a selected faction of the Roman populace. Abuse of the peoples' Tribune position was common.

Censors were appointed for long terms, and acted as the "moral guardians" of Rome. They had the power to determine what category citizens belonged to in the lists, the population tables, and the rolls which kept track of who was eligible to be a member of the Senate. The Censor could use this power to strip a noble family of its Senatorial rank or upgrade the status of others. He also had the final vote on any issue concerning moral or value questions, and as such had an immense influence.

Provincial Governors were appointed by the Senate. They were entrusted with the task of ruling and maintaining the various provinces of the Roman Republic's far-flung Empire. Even though Rome enjoyed Republican government, the provincials generally did not have the rights of citizens, but were subjugated peoples. This was common in the ancient world; it was accepted as a matter of fact that foreigners were not deserving of any real consideration, whether in Rome, Greece, Persia, Egypt, Gaul or ancient Germania. It was a matter of course that foreigners were "less than Romans".

Provincial governorships usually brought great wealth and prestige, because corrupt governors, clans or corporate interests could win their positions by bribery and favouritism, and then bleed the provinces dry. This left the Senate responsible for the mess as desperate provinces revolted from Rome or economically decayed. Tacitus was highly critical of some of his influential and wealthy colleagues, who used their positions to grow wealthy and powerful at the expense of the people they governed.

The authorities used Lictors, or enforcers, to enforce their wishes. They carried sacred staves, which were (originally) used as weapons, probably at a time when Rome had had kings, but were later only ceremonial. In the old Republic, Lictors were responsible for arrests, guarding suspects during trials and the enforcement of government ordinances. Lictors were often written about with special contempt by ancient authors. This was as close as early Rome ever came, really, to developing a police force. In the Empire, the Lictors were eventually replaced with Imperial guard troops, special military divisions or regular soldiers.

When in times of great danger, the Consuls could appoint a Dictator, who had absolute military control of Rome. He could "dictate" policy in times of need. Rome was frequently in great danger of being sacked, raided, invaded, seiged and generally harassed, so this was probably a prudent thing to do at the time. The Tribunes couldn't help protect people from this leader, as he was temporarily all-powerful. He was, however, answerable for his actions, and might have had to justify them before the Senate or in a trial when his term of office was over.

Constitutionally, a dictator was only allowed to serve for a limited period of time, after which he had to either disband his armies or hand over control of them to the state authorities. He could be recalled at any time by the Senate, which theoretically had control over his appointment. Dictators (usually military leaders of some sort) frequently used political trickery to play the populace against the wealthy and the aristocratic Senate, thus undermining both sets of interests in order to curry more favour and power for themselves.

There were many other positions of influence and power in the Roman social order, which developed and changed over time: Legate, Proconsul and others. Some involved only specific duties, while others covered a limited governorship of a territory or district, often under the authority of higher officials. They changed name, function, status and role over time. A successful public career was usually carried through each required position, until the highest ranks were attainable, according to hereditary background.

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